GEOTEXTILES AND ITS APPLICATION
GEOTEXTILES AND ITS APPLICATION
As we know, the prefix of geotextile, geo, means that earth and therefore the ‘textile’ means that material. Therefore, consistent with the definition of the geotextile is outlined as:-
“A porous geosynthetic comprised exclusively of textiles. Geotextiles square measure used with foundation, soil, rock, earth, or the other geotechnical engineering-related material as AN integral a part of human-made project, structure, or system.”
The ASAE (Society for Engineering in Agricultural, Food, and Biological Systems) defines a geotextile as a “fabric or artificial material placed between the soil and a pipe, gabion, or holding wall: to reinforce water movement and retard soil movement, and as a blanket to feature reinforcement and separation.” A geotextile ought to carries with it a stable network that retains its relative structure throughout handling, placement, and long service.
There square measure some attention-grabbing business aspects associated with geotextiles that square measure specific to the trade. for instance, convenience should be thought-about within the light-weight of the acute size vary of operations into that geotextiles square measure incorporated. regarding common fraction of all geotextiles square measure utilized in little batches of 3 rolls or less, however a considerably giant proportion square measure utilized in terribly giant comes incorporating many thousands of sq. metres. offer should so be on the market on involve one or 2 rolls from native stock and, at the same time, should be on the market through agents or directly from the manufacturer in giant quantities over a brief area.
Typical geosynthetic material
TYPES OF GEOTEXTILES
Geo textiles essentially represent four classes –
- Woven
- Heat-bonded nonwoven
- Needle punched nonwoven
- Knitted1.WOVEN:-Woven materials square measure created on loom that impart an everyday rectilineal construction to them, however which might vary in terms of the element fibres and therefore the weave construction.They have a astonishingly big selection of applications and that they square measure usedin lighter weight kind as soil separators, filters and erosion management textiles. In heavyweights, they’re used for soil reinforcement in steep embankments and vertical soil walls; the heavier weight product additionally tend to be used for the support of embankments designed over soft soils. The useful property of the woven structure in terms of reinforcement, is that stress may be absorbed by the warp and pick yarns and therefore by fibres, while not a lot of mechanical elongation. this provides them a comparatively high modulus or stiffness.2.HEAT BONDED:-Heat-bonded non woven textiles square measure usually made of continuous filament fine fibres that are arranged every which way onto a moving belt and passed between heated roller systems. These materials acquire their coherence and strength from the partial melting of fibres between the new rollers, leading to the formation of a comparatively skinny sheet of textile.3.NEEDLE PUNCHED NON-WOVEN:-Needle punched nonwoven materials square measure made of blending webs of continuous or staple filaments that square measure had banks of multiple reciprocatory barbed needles. The materials derive mechanical coherence from the entangling of fibres caused by the barbs on the reciprocatory needles; these materials so fit wool felts.4. KNITTED:-Knitted materials, as utilized in the sphere of geotextiles, square measure restricted to warp-knitted textiles, usually specially made for the aim.Warp-knitting machines will manufacture fine filter materials,medium meshes and huge diameter soil reinforcing grids.
However, it’s usually found that solely the high strength finish of the merchandise vary is value effective, sometimes for soil reinforcement and hill support functions.The higher than forms of geotextiles is also any sub classified as:- - Woven monofilament
- Woven multifilament
- Slit-film monofilament
- Woven slit-film multifilament
- Nonwoven continuous filament heat warranted
- Nonwoven continuous filament needle-punched
- Nonwoven staple needle-punched
- Nonwoven organic compound warranted
- Other woven and nonwoven mixtures.
Non-woven
RAW MATERIALS
The four main chemical compound families most generally used because the staple for geotextiles are:
1.Polyester
2.Polyamide
3.Polypropylene
4.Polyethylene
The two most typical fibre polymers used for the manufacture of geotextiles square measure plastic and synthetic resin, however polyester is nearly inevitably used once high strengths square measure needed. There square measure different higher strength polymers on the market on the market, however geotextiles got to be made in giant quantities (some polymers don’t seem to be on the market in giant volumes) and economically (specialist polymers tend to be terribly expensive). On the general plastic and synthetic resin compete for being the most balance of value against performance, polyester is that the gift day optimum, whereas hemically resistant.
Care should be taken once considering the properties of geotextile polymers that thought is restricted to polymers as they’re truly made and used for geotextile producing purposes; they’re not in their with chemicals pure kind. For
example, raw synthetic resin in its colourless clear kind is kind of prone to light-weight degradation.
However, it’s not utilized in this way in geotextiles, however sometimes contains C as AN ultraviolet (UV) light-weight device. during this black kind, it is arguably the foremost light-resistant chemical compound.
Although polymeric amide may be a common fibre-forming and textile material, withal, it’s seldom utilized in geotextiles, wherever its value and overall performance render it inferior to polyester. Some woven materials, for instance, have used polymeric amide within the pick direction, additional as a ‘fill’, wherever its properties don’t seem to be crucial. Its main plus is its resistance to abrasion, however it displays softening once exposed to water, that seems to own created it unpopular for geosynthetic use. Polyvinylidene chloride fibre is employed in Japan and in one or 2 product within the us, however not in Europe.
PROPERTIES OF GEOTEXTILE
The three main properties that square measure needed and such as for a geotextile square measure :-
1. Mechanical responses
2. Filtration ability
3. Chemical resistance.
These square measure the properties that manufacture the desired operating impact. they’re all developed from the mixture of the physical variety of the chemical compound fibres, their textile construction and therefore the chemical compound chemical characteristics.
Typical final stress–strain failure levels (a) of high strength and (b) of medium strength polyester woven geotextiles used for hill support and soil reinforcement, (c) of geogrids and lower strength polyester woven geotextiles used for soil reinforcement and (d) of low strength, extremely extensile nonwoven geotextiles used for separation and filtration. (c) represents the present most strength capability of synthetic resin geogrids.
Mechanical responses embrace the flexibility of a textile to perform add a stress surroundings Associate in Nursingd its ability to resist harm in an arduous surroundings. typically the stressed surroundings is understood earlier and also the textile is chosen on the idea of numerical criteria to deal with the expected obligatory stresses and its ability to soak up those stresses over the projected period of the structure while not straining quite a preset quantity.
The filtration performance of a geotextile is ruled by many factors.In general, filters take away particles suspended in a very fluid, as an example, dirt filters in air-conditioning units, or water filters, that area unit supposed to get rid of impurities from suspension. Quite the other state of affairs exists with geotextile filters.The geotextile’s perform is to carry intact a freshly ready soil surface, in order that water might exude from the soil surface and thru the textile while not breaking down that surface.
If water is allowed to flow between the textile and also the soil interface, with particles in suspension, it’ll tend to clog the textile which is able to fail in its perform. In apply, it’s been found that, in conjunction with a textile, the soil can tend to filter itself, on condition that the integrity of its external surface is maintained. the particular method going down is that the passage of a liquid from a solid medium that’s command intact by a leaky textile. the method isn’t one in all restraining the passage of solids that area unit suspended inside a liquid medium.
Chemical Resistance of geo textiles area unit seldom known as upon to resist very aggressive chemical environments. specific samples of wherever they’re, however, embrace their use within the basal layers of chemical effluent containers or waste disposal sites.This can happen if and once leaks occur, allowing effluent to undergo the imperviable liner, or if the textiles are incorporated directly within the leach Ate disposal system
above the imperviable liner.
Another example may well be the utilization of textiles to bear with extremely acidic humate soils, wherever in tropical countries, pH values all the way down to a pair of are encountered. In industrialised countries wherever infrastructure developments area unit being created through extremely impure and contaminated areas, geo textiles can even acquire contact with adverse environments. actinic ray can tend to cause harm to most polymers, however the inclusion of additives, within the type of inhibitor chemicals and smut powder, will significantly cut back this impact.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
The weight or space density of the material is Associate in Nursing indicator of mechanical performance solely inside specific teams of textiles, however not between one kind of construction and another. as an example, inside the general vary of needle punched continuous filament polyester materials, weight can correlate with tensile stiffness. However, a woven material with a given space density can virtually definitely be a lot of stiffer than a similar weight needle punched structure. Clearly the development controls
the performance. Therefore, it’s not possible to use weight alone as a criterion in specifying textiles for engineering science use. However, together with alternative 364 enchiridion of technical textile.
Different stress–strain curve shapes exhibited by the 3 main varieties of geosynthetic construction.
(a) Geogrids absorb the obligatory stresses instantly, giving a high initial modulus. Later, the curve flattens.
(b) woven materials exhibit initial straightening of warp fibres that produces a coffee initial modulus. Later the modulus will increase because the straightened chemical compound fibres take the strain directly.
(c) Nonwovens provides a curvili close to curve, as a result of extension is primarily resisted by straightening and realignment of the random fibre directions.
The breaking strength of a customary breadth of cloth or ‘ultimate strip tensile failure strength’ is universally quoted within the manufacturers’ literature to explain the ‘strength’ of their textiles. Again, this can be of terribly restricted use in terms of style.
No styleer really uses the failure strength to develop a design. Rather, a strength at a given tiny strain level are the planning demand. Therefore, the tensile resistance or modulus of the textile at say, 2%, 4%, and 6 June 1944 strain is far a lot of valuable. Ideally, continuous stress–strain curves ought to be provided for engineers, to alter them to style stress resisting structures properly.
Stress–strain curves, as shown on top of, could comprise a high strain sector, contributed by the textile structure straightening out, and a coffee strain sector, contributed by the straightened chemical compound taking the strain. Of course, the mechanical performance of the common geotextiles are less because the close temperature rises. as a result of engineering sites area unit exposed to temperatures
varying from -20 °C to 50°C, this could have necessary consequences throughout installation and use.
Creep will cause the physical failure of a geotextile if it’s command below too high a mechanical stress. it’s been found that in sensible terms, each polyester and polythene can stabilize against creep if stress levels are often maintained at a sufficiently
low level.
Although polypropene doesn’t appear to stabilize at any stress level, its creep rate is thus low at tiny stresses that a ‘no creep’ condition is also thought-about to exist in apply.
Approximate limits of creep resistance for various geosynthetic chemical compound constructions.The ‘no creep’ condition, measured as elongation, for any specific chemical compound textile is outlined (usually as a percentage) with regard to the textile’s final load carrying capability.For polyester, it’s some hr, for polythene concerning four-hundredth and for polypropene around two hundredth.Therefore, as an example, a polyester material with Associate in Nursing final strength of a hundred kNm-1 breadth can not be loaded below an extended term stress of quite sixty kNm-1.The higher the extent of obligatory stress on top of this time, the a lot of fast are the onset of creep failure. Figure 14.3 shows the safe loading limits for many usually used geotextiles.
Wing tear, grab tear and puncture resistance tests is also valuable as a result of they simulate on-the-spot harm situations like boulder dropping and direct over-running by machines. These tests area unit developed in customary type in a very range of nations,
with the quality geosynthetic take a look at specification within the GB being SB 6906 that contains tests for
1 tensile take a look a ting by suggests that of a large strip test
2 pore size testing by dry sieving
3 water flow testing traditional to the plane of the textile
4 puncture resistance testing
5 creep testing
6 perforation susceptibleness (cone) testing
7 water flow testing within the plane of the textile
8 testing of sand/geotextile resistance behaviour.
While not commonly a part of the mechanical necessities of a textile, the strength of joints between sheet edges is a very important side of geotextile performance.When birthing textiles on soft ground for supporting embankments, parallel sheets of textile ought to be seamed along in order that they are doing not separate underneath load. The strength of such seamed joints depends critically on the enduringness of the stitching thread. seldom can the seamed joint exceed half-hour of the yarn final enduringness.
Research and field apply have shown that the strength of a seamed joint depends additional upon the purpose and tension of the stitching thread, the sort of {stitching} stitch for various geosynthetic chemical compound constructions. and therefore the reasonably textile lap than the strength of the textile.
An incorrect however common idea of joint ‘efficiency’ has developed that expresses the strength of a seamed seam as a share of the textile strength. In fact, comparatively weak textiles are often seamed specified the joint is as sturdy because the textile, therefore giving a 100 percent potency.The stronger the textile, the less is that the relative strength of the seamed joint, resulting in falling efficiencies with stronger materials.Thus it’s affordable to request a seventy fifth economical seamed joint if the textiles being joined square measure comparatively weak, say twenty kN final strength, however it’d be not possible to attain with a textile of say 600 kN final strength.
Unfortunately, it’s the stronger textiles that tend to wish to be joined, so as to support embankments and therefore the like.Adhesive joints, on the opposite hand, are often created victimization single-component adhesives whose setting is triggered by atmospherical wet.These are often wont to create joints that square measure as sturdy because the textile, even for top strength materials. analysis continues to be required on ways of application, however their use ought to become additional widespread the longer term. except for tensile testing of joints, there’s associate degree pressing ought to develop tests that provides a important description of the ways in which textiles behave once stressed inside a confining soil mass and in addition once stressed by a confining soil mass. the quality textile tests employed in the past aren’t ready to try this. analysis work has been started on these lines however is up to now meagre to supply a basis for theoretical analysis.
FILTRATION PROPERTIES
Filtration is one in all the foremost necessary functions of textiles employed in engineering earthworks. it’s no doubt the biggest application of textiles and includes their use within the lining of ditches, to a lower place roads, in waste disposal facilities, for building basement emptying and in several alternative ways in which . Of all the numerous uses for geotextiles, solely in a very bolstered soil mass is there no beneficial filtration result. in only concerning all alternative applications as well as drains, access roads, watercourse defences, marine defences, hill support and concrete running, the geotextile can play a primary or secondary filtering operate.
The porosity of geotextiles will vary vastly, relying upon the development of the material. varied national and international standards are started for the mensuration of porosity that’s needed, most frequently at right angles to the plane of the textile (crossflow), however additionally on the plane of the textile (in-plane flow, known as transmissivity). it’s necessary in engineering earthworks that water ought to flow freely through the geotextile, therefore preventing the build-up of gratuitous water pressure.The porosity constant may be a variety whose worth describes the porosity of the fabric involved, taking under consideration its dimension within the direction of flow; the units square measure rationalised in metres per second. Effectively the constant may be a speed, indicating the flow speed of the water through the textile. Usually, this can be of the order of zero.001ms-1.A normally such as take a look at measures a directly determined throughflow rate, that several feel is additional sensible than the porosity coefficient; this can be the degree throughflow in litres per centare per second at one hundred millimetre head of pressure. Engineers additionally use a constant known as the permittivity, that defines the theoretical porosity regardless of the thickness of the material. The filtration result is achieved by inserting the textile against the soil, in shut contact, therefore maintaining the physical integrity of the vacant soil surface from that water is passing. inside the primary few millimetres of soil, an enclosed filter is constructed up and once a brief amount of piping, stability ought to be achieved and filtration established As antecedently mentioned, filtration is often achieved by creating the soil filter itself, therefore employing a solid medium system, through that the liquid is flowing. There are, however, special cases wherever it’s specifically needed that the textile works in a suspension atmosphere. Examples embody tailing lagoons from mining operations and alternative industrial lagoons wherever water must be cleared from slurries.
Internal soil filter zone generated by a geotextile. don’t work well underneath these conditions, however experimental work has instructed that double layers of various kinds of textile acting as a composite unit will improve the flexibility of the individual parts to result filtration while not impeding. the best combination according may be a swish woven textile over a thick needle punched nonwoven material placed in order that the previous is between the needlepunched element and therefore the suspension.
It seems that the woven material acts as a ‘shield’, protective the nonwoven from the liquid and emulating a soil surface, thus
permitting the nonwoven to operate additional effectively as a filter.The emptying result of the underlying nonwoven additionally presumably acts to induce high hydraulic gradients that, reciprocally, assist the woven to operate.
It appears that the plain-woven cloth acts as a ‘shield’, protective the nonwoven from the liquid and emulating a soil surface, thus
permitting the nonwoven to operate additional effectively as a filter.The evacuation result of the underlying nonwoven conjointly probably acts to induce high hydraulic gradients that, reciprocally, assist the plain-woven to operate.
The procedure for matching a textile to the soil, so as to attain stability underneath tough hydraulic conditions, is to use a textile whose largest holes square measure equal in diameter to the biggest particles of the soil
This dimension is understood because the D90 by convention. Similarly, a sign of the biggest holes in a very textile is taken because the ninetieth of the largest holes within the cloth, the O90. Textiles in technology Even underneath ideal conditions, if the O90 pore size is larger than 5D90, then socalled piping can happen.The textile O90 pore size ought to be reduced from 5D90 towards D90 because the ground and hydraulic conditions deteriorate.
CHEMICAL RESISTANCE
Although the chemical mechanisms concerned in fibre degradation square measure complicated, there square measure four main agents of deterioration: organic, inorganic, lightweight exposure and time amendment among the textile fibres.
Organic agents embrace attack by micro- and macrofaunas.This is not thought of to be a serious supply of degradation intrinsically. Geotextiles could also be broken secondarily by animals, however not primarily. for instance, few animals can eat them specifically, however in restricted instances, once the textile is buried within the ground, it’s going to be destroyed by animals burrowing through.
Microorganisms might harm the textiles by living on or among the fibres and manufacturing damaging by-products. probably the foremost exacting surroundings for geotextiles is within the surf zone of the ocean wherever aerated water permits the breeding of micro- and macro organisms and wherever moving water provides a exacting physical stress.
Inorganic attack is mostly restricted to extreme pH scale environments. underneath most sensible conditions, geotextile polymers square measure effectively inert. There square measure explicit instances, like polyester being attacked by pH scale levels bigger than eleven (e.g. the byproducts of setting cement), however these square measure rare and recognizable. Geotextiles will fail in their filtration operate by virtue of organisms multiplying and interference the pores, or by chemical precipitation from saturated mineral waters interference the pores. above all, water egressing from previous mine workings will be heavily saturated with iron compound which may speedily block filters, whether or not textile or granular.
Ultraviolet light can deteriorate geotextile fibres if exposed for important periods of your time, however laboratory testing has shown that fibres can deteriorate on their own with time, notwithstanding keep underneath dry dark cool conditions in a very laboratory.Therefore, time itself could be a damaging agent as a consequence of close temperature and thermal degradation, which can deteriorate a geotextile by associate unknown quantity
APPLICATIONS
1.Drainage (fluid transmission)
Normally the strength of soil is decided by its water content; because the water content decreases its strength will increase and the other way around. A geotextile will convey fluids or gases among the plane of the geotextile to associate egress purpose. The system permits dissipation of excess pore water pressure, so consolidation will happen and therefore the soil strength is hyperbolic. the speed of dissipation of excess pore water pressure will be increased by victimisation temporary drains within the soil in order that the evacuation path is reduced .This type of drain is merely needed to perform for a restricted fundamental measure, till consolidation has taken place
2.Filtration
A geotextile acts as a filter by allowing the flow of liquid and gases, however preventing the passage of soil particles which may cause settlement because of loss of ground. The pore size among the geotextile is chosen to avoid interference, blazing and preventative.Ground drains square measure wont to prevent/intercept water flow, ordinarily to cut back the chance of an increase in pore water pressure. usually these drains square measure vertically sided trenches, lined with a geotextile so crammed with coarse gravel. Initial loss of soil particles are going to be high adjacent to the geotextile. This causes a zone (in the remaining soil particles) to bridge over the pores within the geotextile and retain smaller particles, that successively retain even smaller particles. so a natural hierarchal filter is created which can forestall extra washout of fine particles, when that the geotextile becomes more-or-less redundant. If the geotextile wasn’t wont to encapsulate the coarse granular evacuation material, an excessive amount of wash-through of particles.
3.Separation:-
A geotextile acts as a extractor by preventing the intermixing of coarse and fine soil materials while permitting the free flow of water across the geotextile. for example, once a geotextile is placed between the under soil and therefore the granular sub-base of associate caliche-topped road, it prevents the combination from being punched down into the soil throughout initial compaction and after from the dynamic loading of car axles.
4.Erosion control/absorption
A speedily developing space for geotextiles is within the erosion management business wherever they’re utilized for short effects.This usage differs from the opposite applications of geotextiles therein they’re set on the surface and not buried within the soil. the most aim is {to management|to regulate|to manage} erosion while serving to to determine vegetation which can control erosion naturally.
The geotextile is then surplus to necessities and might degrade, enriching the soil. Geotextiles will scale back runoff, retain soil particles and defend soil that has not been vegetated, from the sun, rain and wind. they’ll even be wont to suppress weeds around new planted trees.Erosion management will be applied to riverbanks and coastlines to stop undermining by the ebb and flow of the tide or simply by wave motion.
5.Reinforcement:-
Due to their high soil cloth friction constant and high end duringness, significant grades of geotextiles square measure wont to reinforce earth structures permitting the employment of native fill material.This is the synergistic improvement within the total system strength created by the introduction of a geotextile into a soil and developed primarily through the subsequent 3 mechanisms:
One, lateral restraint through surface friction between geotextile and soil/aggregate. Two, forcing the potential bearing surface failure plane to develop at alternate higher shear strength surface. And three, membrane variety of support of the wheel masses
| Mechanical | Hydraulic | Long-term performance | |
| Base failure | Shear strength of bonding system | Hydraulic boundary conditions | Chemical and decay resistance |
| Top failure | Tensile strength of geotextile
Geotextile/ soil friction |
Hydraulic boundary conditions | Chemical and decay resistance |
| Slope failure | Tensile strength of geotextile
Geotextile/ soil friction |
Hydraulic boundary conditions | Creep of the geotextile/ soil system
Chemical and decay resistance |
This is the synergistic improvement within the total system strength created by the introduction of ageotextile into a soil and developed primarily through the subsequent 3 mechanisms: One,lateral restraint through surface friction between geotextile and soil/aggregate. Two, forcing the potential bearing surface failure plane to develop at alternate higher shear strength surface. And three, membrane variety of support of the wheel masses.
MARKET ACTIVITY
To say that the market activity of geo synthetics within the geotechnical, transportation, and environmental areas is robust is in spades an underestimation. to get AN insight into the vitality of geosynthetics
CONCLUSION
Geotextiles square measure a part of a wider cluster of applied science membranes referred to as geosynthetics.
They are extraordinarily various in their construction and look. However,they are usually made of a restricted variety of polymers (polypropylene,polyethylene and polyester), and square measure largely of 5 basic types: plain-woven, heatbonded, needlepunched, unwoven and direct soil mixed fibres.
The physical properties of this various cluster of product vary consequently, with final strengths reaching up to 2000 kNm 1, however normally between ten and two hundred kNm-1. final strains vary up to quite 100 percent, however the usable vary for engineers is mostly between three and 100 percent.
Similarly, the filtration potential and porousness of various geotextiles vary hugely. Geotextiles square measure employed in applied science earthworks to strengthen vertical and steep banks of soil, to construct firm bases for temporary and permanent roads and highways, to line ground drains, in order that the soil filters itself and prevents soil from filling up the drainpipes and to forestall erosion behind rock and facing on watercourse banks and therefore the coast.
They have been developed since the middle 1970 s, however the appearance of unwoven and composite materials has crystal rectifier to a revival in a veryttempts to boost textile construction in a designed fashion. higher physical properties will be achieved by exploitation quite one material and by utilizing the simplest options of every.
One, lateral restraint through interfacial friction between geotextile and soil/aggregate. Two, forcing the potential bearing surface failure plane to develop at alternate higher shear strength surface. And three, membrane type of support of the wheel loads
This is the synergistic improvement in the total system strength created by the introduction of ageotextile into a soil and developed primarily through the following three mechanisms: One,lateral restraint through interfacial friction between geotextile and soil/aggregate. Two, forcing the potential bearing surface failure plane to develop at alternate higher shear strength surface. And three, membrane type of support of the wheel loads.
MARKET ACTIVITY
To say that the market activity of geo synthetics in the geotechnical, transportation, and environmental areas is strong is decidedly an understatement. To obtain an insight into the vitality of geosynthetics
CONCLUSION
Geotextiles are part of a wider group of civil engineering membranes called geosynthetics.
They are extremely diverse in their construction and appearance. However,they are generally made from a limited number of polymers (polypropylene,polyethylene and polyester), and are mostly of five basic types: woven, heatbonded,needlepunched, knitted and direct soil mixed fibres.
The physical properties of this diverse group of products vary accordingly, with ultimate strengths reaching up to 2000 kNm-1, but commonly between 10 and 200 kNm-1. Ultimate strains vary up to more than 100%, but the usable range for engineers is generally between 3 and 10%.
Similarly, the filtration potential and permeability of different geotextiles vary enormously. Geotextiles are used in civil engineering earthworks to reinforce vertical and steep banks of soil, to construct firm bases for temporary and permanent roads and highways, to line ground drains, so that the soil filters itself and prevents soil from filling up the drainpipes and to prevent erosion behind rock and stone facing on river banks and the coast.
They have been developed since the mid 1970 s, but the advent of knitted and composite fabrics has led to a revival in attempts to improve textile construction in a designed fashion. Better physical properties can be achieved by using more than one fabric and by utilizing the best features of each.
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